The Celts, who swarmed over most of Europe and even Asia Minor until Rome spread its empire, were not literate, but had an almost religious fascination for gold. Their surprisingly advanced mining and gold-smith techniques were a legacy throughout Europe, confirmed with researched. Gold's uses were initially religious, decorative and prestigious, and later monetary.

Japan was a divided empire, where daimyo, feudal war lords, ruled autonomously, until shogun Ideyoshi reunited it under his de facto reign in the 16th century. Key to his success were the samurai, elite warriors, and gold, mainly mined on Sado island, which had various uses, mainly symbolical. However it also tempted him to attempt a disastrous invasion of Korea, then a Chinese province.